Mummification of the Dead
The Progression of Body Preparations in Egypt
Within the archaeological record, it is very clear that the Egyptians began to develop elaborate burial preparations.
Aspects of Mummification
1. Drying and Protecting the Corpse Primarily, researchers concluded that Pre-Dynastic civilizations utilized sands from the arid environment in pit graves to dehydrate the dead. However, it has been shown that this early pit inhumation was replaced by animal skin or wood lined coffins (Murray; Ghurye). This began the evolution of above ground corpse protections such as mastabas, stepped pyramids, iconic pyramids, and crevice or cliff burials. As the burial architecture developed, corpses required additional preservation methods. Natural dehydration through the arid climate and linen wrappings were replaced by herbs and spices, plants, purifying materials, and the use of natron. While the specific length of the drying process is debated, it is highly likely that corpses rested in these materials for months to complete dehydration (Abdel-Maksoud and El-Amin). Specifically, palm wine, water from the Nile, myrrh, oils of cedar, juniper, and pine, cassia, henna, cinnamon, onions and lichens were used in a myriad of ways to control decomposition processes and odors, extract moisture, and maintain lifelike forms (Abdel-Maksoud and El-Amin). 2. Organ Removal (Aziz) To further the preservation of the dead, organ removal supplemented the drying process. Usable incisions were created on the left of the abdomen and the center diaphragm to facilitate the removal of organs albeit the kidneys and/or heart before filling the body cavity with natron (Abdel-Maksoud and El-Amin). Retention of the heart reflects the socio-religious significance of this organ as the seat of the mind (Abdel-Maksoud and El-Amin). Although removed, the liver, intestines, lungs, and stomach were preserved in canopic jars that accompanied the corpse in burial beginning in the Old Kingdom. During later periods, these jars shifted away from plain decor to anthropomorphically represent the four sons of Horus (Dodson). Canopic jars were largely replaced by storing these removed organs in natron bundles in or near the body by the end of the Middle Kingdom (Dodson). Additionally, the brain was removed with an iron hook and natron through the nasal passage. Although brain removal was not consistent between or within periods, the process originated in the Fourth Dynasty for kings only (Aziz). Removal via hook became accessible to all classes by the Middle Kingdom before being replaced in the New Kingdom by internal preservation with natron and resins (Aziz). 3. Wrapping (Jones, et al.) Corpses were wrapped in linens smothered with and without resin beginning as early as the Pre-Dynastic Period. These early mummies had linen-wrapped hands, heads, and feet (Weiss). Resins consisted of an animal fat or plant oil base and smaller additions of aromatic extracts and resins with small traces of wax and plant gum (Abdel-Maksoud and El-Amin). Studies have concluded that this resin contains antibacterial properties (Jones, et al.; Abdel-Maksoud and El-Amin). Although this basic recipe for resin shows low variability, the consistency of resin use in mummification is highly irregular. Eventually, these early instances of partially wrapping corpses was replaced by wrapping the whole body in linens to represent the thorough embalming that constitutes iconic Egyptian mummification that became more prevalent in the Old Kingdom Period before reaching its height in the New Kingdom Period (Abdel-Maksoud and El-Amin). |